19th Century Philosophers: Background

1. Themes

A number of themes provide the context for 19th century philosophy. First, the search for a cleanly stated, straightforward objectivity by British philosophers vs. the search for or the rejection of, objectivity, within a profound subjectivity, by Continental philosophers. Among British philosophers John Stuart Mill represents the culmination of the British empiricism of Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, George Berkeley, and David Hume. Kant, Hegel, Schopenhauer, Kierkegaard and Nietzsche introduce a profound subjectivity into philosophical thinking. However, Kant and Hegel retain objectivity, while Schopenhauer retains a partial objectivity. Kierkegaard and Nietzsche are clearly subjectivitists. Auguste Comte, and Karl Marx do not fir the pattern very well.

Second, there are traces of the traditional conflict between British empiricism and Continental rationalism. The distinction however should be carefully acknowledged and may represent an oversimplification of the two approaches. Comte and Mach on the Continent do not fit the distinction well, although Kant and Hegel do. Bradley in England does not fit the distinction well. One of the more interesting examples of the conflict arises with respect to science, specifically, the sense impression science of British empiricism vs. the dialectical science of Hegel and Marx.

Third, we see during this time the rise of social, as opposed to natural, sciences through the thought of Hegel, Comte, Marx, and Mill. Fourth, the concept of historical progress arises in the thought of Hegel, Comte, and Marx. Fifth, compared with earlier periods of philosophy in western civilization, the 19th century does not lend itself to confinement of interest to metaphysics and epistemology. This is true because Marx, Kierkegaard, and Nietzsche are so concerned with the human condition. The rise of the social sciences since they are so concerned with human behavior also makes it more difficult to confine interests to metaphysics and epistemology.

Sixth, another important development during his time centers upon Hegel vs. Marx with respect to Dialectic. Hegel’s dialectic consists of the pattern of thesis, antithesis, and synthesis within the realm of ideas. Aufheben, meaning to negate, preserve, or transform constitutes the dynamic of dialectic. Marx’ dialectic turned Hegel on his head. He places the thesis, antithesis, synthesis pattern within the realm of material existence. He emphasizes the material modes of production as the dynamic of dialectic.