B. Induction
1. Definition: All reasoned knowledge is based upon induction, so induction is fundamentally important.
2. The Ground of Induction:
The fundamental axiom, or ground, of induction is the Principle of the Uniformity of Nature: “an assumption with regard to the course of nature and the order of the universe, namely, that there are such things in nature as parallel cases; that what happens once will, under s sufficient degree of similarity of circumstances, happen again and not only again, but as often as the same circumstances recur.” (Bk III, ch. III). The principle is the ultimate major premise of every induction. Although nature is uniform, it is also “infinitely various.” This leads to problem with respect to induction, such as the mistaken view once held by Europeans, “All swans are white.” The variety along with our limited experience creates the problem of induction, whereby we have difficulty determining why and when induction can be relied upon.
3. Scientific Induction
The popular inductions usually based upon induction by simple enumeration and often-unreliable need to be replaced by scientific induction. Scientific induction gives a great precision and accuracy to the process of collecting and improving inductions through further experience. The simplest expressions of uniformities in nature, those upon which other uniformities rest, become the laws of nature in science. Observed uniformities that have not yet been resolved into, or derived from, simpler laws are empirical laws. They are acceptable as true only within the limits of the experience that establishes them. That is, they get no additional support that would come from showing how they can be explained, or derived from laws of nature.
4. Law of Universal Causation
“ . . . . invariability of succession is found by observation to obtain between every fact in nature and some other fact which has preceded it . . . “ or “ the law that every consequent has an invariable antecedent.” (Bk. III, ch. V) The Law of Universal Causation provides a way of explaining the principle of the uniformity of nature and thereby proves an ultimate justification of induction. The truth of the Law is based upon experience rather than self evidence, the structure of the mind, or a mere disposition to believe. Evidence for the law of Universal Causations consists of:
a. Although the evidence is based on a wide range of more specialized inductions, the totality is co extensive with the whole of human experience.
b. Although induction by simple enumeration is often unreliable, it becomes reliable with respect to the Law of Universal Causation (as is also the case with respect to laws of number and geometry) just because of the enormously wide range of inductions that support the Law.
c. Evidence directly shows that the Law is true for “far the greatest number of phenomena” and there is no evidence of its being untrue.
d. As our knowledge increases, more and more phenomena fall under the law.
e. Even when some phenomena elude the attempt to bring them under the Law, we find that parts of the phenomena do come under the Law, for example, in the case of the wind.
While we have every reason to accept the truth of the Law of Universal Causation, “the reasons for this reliance do not hold in circumstances unknown to us, and beyond the possible range of our experience. In distant parts of the stellar regions, where the phenomena may be entirely unlike those with which we are acquainted, it would be folly to affirm confidently that this genera law prevails . . .. “ (Bk III. Ch. XXI, Par. 4) This qualification seems to be aptly applicable to the world of quantum physics, where universal causation is denied.
5. Methods of Experimental Inquiry
Agreement, Difference, Joint Method of Agreement and Difference, Residues, and Concomitant Variation: These methods are fundamental in providing the precision and accuracy needed for scientific induction.
